Academic Exchange Quarterly
Winter 2007 ISSN 1096-1453 Volume
11, Issue 4
To cite, use print source rather than this
on-line version which may not reflect print copy format requirements
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Teaching
Democracy Democratically
Robert M. Press,
Press, PhD. is
an Assistant Professor of Political Science, International Development and
International Affairs.
Abstract
Teachers often teach about American democracy in an autocratic way: they lecture and tell students what to read, what to do, and when to do it. This article examines an innovative, alternative pedagogical model that involves both democratic practices in the classroom and off-campus community service requirements to help students relate democratic theory to reality. Advantages and disadvantages are presented for this teaching method, which builds on literature that stresses the benefits of active, student-centered and participatory learning over passive learning.
Introduction
A student bounding up the steps asks his teacher in American
Government 101: “What are we going to do today?” The teacher’s reply, “You
never know” is more honest than the student realized [1]. Teaching democracy
democratically involves planning; it also involves flexibility and spontaneity
and making mistakes. In the normal classroom setting, things are more certain –
and often more authoritarian. Students seldom leave the classroom; teachers
often are the sole authority and assume
the role, through their lectures, of primary source of knowledge.
The thesis of this article
is that one way to teach democracy, building on literature that questions the
authoritarian model, is to teach it democratically. This involves trusting
students in the classroom by sharing authority with them, and trusting them to
go into the community to discover for themselves some of the needs of society
and the strengths and weakness of our democratic system in meeting those needs
[2].
Relevant themes from the
literature
Learning, according to educational pioneer Dewey (1933), involves
understanding, not just the storing of knowledge in memory and the ability to
reproduce it on demand. Eyler and Giles ( 1999, pp. 64-65) cite the case of
Richard Feynman, a Nobel laureate physicist, who found that university students
could recall information only when questions were phrased the way they were in
the classroom text – but without really understanding the information and
without being able to apply it to new situations. Feynman (1985, p. 213) wrote:
“They could pass examinations and ‘learn’ all this stuff and not know [emphasis in original] anything at
all.”
The late Brazilian educator Paulo Freire (1990) suggested that
teaching should not involve an attempt by the teacher to pour learning into the
empty mind of a student, like filling a glass with water [3]. This means moving
beyond the usual lecture model, not just for the sake of innovation but for
sound pedagogical reasons. “There is near consensus among the researchers that
effective learning, particularly concerning emotional and higher-order
intellectual development, requires interactive and participatory strategies”
(Herman 1996, p. 56). Gregory Markus, a political scientist at the
This can involve the teacher giving up some of the usual role as
the main source of classroom wisdom and providing an atmosphere for students to
express their own ideas more freely. Classrooms, however, including many of
today’s technologically equipped ones, still emphasize the role of the teacher
as the fount of most knowledge. “It is difficult to imagine that individuals
can develop their capacities as public citizens via a pedagogy in which students
passively acquire knowledge dispensed from the expert at the front of the room.
Instead, the classroom model must model the practices it intends to teach“
(Markus 1997, p. 77).
The literature on teaching democratically is rather sparse. There
are two possible reasons for this: lack of interest, and the additional work
and risks involved. The lecture model is still quite common, though variations
on it allow for significant classroom discussions and other participation.
“Those who are interested [in teaching democratically] must engage in an
extremely time-consuming, energy-sapping experience. It is not surprising,
therefore, that there is not a surfeit of actual democratic classroom
experimentation” (Becker and Couto 1996, p. 26).
McKeachie, in his popular book on teaching methods, suggests that
students involved in structuring their material can recall it and use it better
(McKeachie 1994, p. 280). But he offers several cautions useful for anyone
trying a more democratic approach in the classroom. First, on the issue of
student independence v. teacher control, in what he terms “experiential
learning,” giving students the freedom to “make and learn from mistakes” is
useful. But if students lose too much time adjusting to the new teaching
methods, they lose motivation. A teacher should offer initial “support and
guidance…encouraging more independence as the student surmounts initial
problems.” Second, although research suggests people enjoy new stimuli, if the
stimuli or methods are “totally incongruous or very strange, students develop
anxiety instead of curiosity” (pp. 141; 350).
Democracy in the classroom
Teaching democracy democratically involves practicing democracy in
the classroom. The degree of democratization depends on the willingness of the
teacher to try new pedagogical methods. Some teachers gradually turn over more
and more decision-making authority to students during a term (Caspary and
Herman 1996). Another teacher allowed students to craft and vote on a “syllabus-constitution” which left the
teacher in an executive role but gave students legislative and Supreme Court
functions; and he allowed students to re-design course content and evaluation
procedures (Mattern 1996).
My classrooms are a mix of democracy and the more traditional methods.
About half the class time is still devoted to informal lectures. But the aim
even during the lectures is to create a town hall meeting atmosphere where
students are encouraged to ask questions and make comments. The teacher can
walk around the classroom, including between aisles where possible, frequently
soliciting answers, reactions, opinions, from the students, while still staying
close to the text theme of the week and using illustrative stories and examples
to make government and democracy come more alive. With the teacher still fully
in charge, this is not the most democratic element in the course.
The rest of the time can be devoted to greater student
participation and involvement, including, a voice in choosing which topics to
debate or present. One student called this power sharing with students not just
an innovation but also a "revolution." Students also vote on whether
to do the presentations. One semester, however, students barely voted to have a
voice in preparing presentations for the class, viewing it as additional work
and not additional learning opportunities.
Beyond the democratic freedom to choose some of the topics to
focus on, students are also given freedom to choose pedagogical methods. As if
to underscore their preferences for innovative learning/teaching methods, few
student-led presentations have involve lectures, though some students do revert
to reading portions of the text or their summary of it. My charge to the
students is: (1) keep the presentations related to the text theme of the week;
(2) be sure there is learning going on in the classroom. It is sometimes hard to determine when the
latter is occurring, however.
Class elections for President and Vice President allow students to
choose their own leaders. The class officers can be consulted by the teacher
for their views on scheduling and presentations among other points. They
also relieve the teacher of making some of the class announcements and they
come up with suggestions on the course, which we sometimes put to a vote. One
semester we had frequent class votes; on some non-critical issues I was
outvoted. Some students complained of having too many votes that cut into class
time, while others pointed out that democracy is not a speedy process.
Elections for officers are learning tools because we hold them
according to the historical circumstances of the period we are studying. A
number of students said the class elections were the first time they realized
how unjust American society and government were toward women and blacks
throughout much of nation’s history. One student said early in the class: “I don’t have anything to do with politics.”
But she was later nominated by the class and elected Vice President.
Role-playing can bring a sense of democracy in the classroom.
Using simulations printed out from the software of a publisher, students assume
such roles as judges, mayors, police, or lobbyists. They divide into groups of
usually five to seven students [4].
Their preparation has been the lecture and class discussion of the theme
with which the simulation deals. Near the end of the class students are asked
to select a representative of their team to come forward and explain why they
made the choices they made. This has the added advantage of putting students, including
shy ones, on their feet in front of the class, helping them gain speaking
confidence.
A key element of democracy is gaining a better understanding of
what it means to be a good citizen. Dankwart Rustow (1999, p. 37) argues that
democracy involves not only consensus but “dissension and conciliation,” the
ability of people to take different positions but still get along. Debates in
the classroom on ‘hot’ topics such as abortion and gay marriage, when
structured with advance assigned readings, can help a class learn the art of
conciliation. At a minimum, especially if students have to argue both sides of
an issue, debates can help the student learn to listen to opposing arguments as
well as to shape their own more effectively. (By keeping my own views out of
the classroom as much as possible, students are freer to express their own.)
Students vote on the topics they want to debate. My pedagogical guideline to them is to base
their arguments on facts, not emotion or unsupported views. As an experiment,
after students had voted to debate gay marriage, I allowed an initial debate in
groups with no research preparation. The discussion was lively but also quite
emotional at times. Some students voiced their views loudly with little
indication that they had listened to the opposite side.
Then I assigned a one-page paper on the pros and cons of the
issue. When they brought these to the next class, our class President explained
basic debating rules. The students broke into their usual groups of five or
six. Mid-way through the debate, I asked them to switch sides. Some found it
awkward, but they proceeded, often arguing against their personal beliefs but
at least voicing the alternative arguments. The results were impressive: calm
deliberations based on facts.
Students and democracy
outside the classroom
A community service assignment can help s student learn more about
issues and problems in their community and assess how well either the private
sector or government is addressing those problems. My students are required to
complete ten hours of community service, an initiative possible even in larger
classes by inviting community organization representatives to the classroom to
give students a variety of choices, which reduces the teacher’s administrative
time on the project [5].
Students have visited nursing home patients, served meals in a
shelter for the homeless, helped rebuild homes damaged by hurricane Katrina,
worked in an animal shelter, city hall departments including the police, and in
many other activities, including ones they find themselves for which they have
obtained my approval. Students are
required to write a policy paper analyzing the issues they have observed and
local, state or federal government actions (or lack of them) to address the issues.
Though the literature on community service learning emphasizes reflection of
their service in terms of journals and classroom discussions, so far my
students have not been required to keep journals; and reflective discussions in
class have been limited. These are points to be considered in future classes.
One student who worked in the local city urban planning department
wrote: “I think I might be interested in a government career and this project
gave me some valuable insights into a few aspects of city government.” Another,
who worked in the city public relations office and secured ten donations from
companies for a
Many students feel estranged from government, as if it is
something alien to them and beyond their understanding. So in addition to
community service, my students are required to attend one city or county
council meeting or attend a court session and write a short paper on the
experience. One of the disadvantages of
assigning these outside activities is the extra papers to grade.
Conclusion
Teaching democracy democratically has both advantages and
disadvantages. It involves students more, a feature the literature recognizes
as positive. The experience of more democracy in the classroom and encounters
with community realities also provide new insights into the way democracy does
– or does not – work in
A student campus leader in one of my ‘democratic’ classrooms
wrote: “It was great that this class pushed me out of my [university] world and
brought the city…and its issues to my attention…This entire class including
this project [the city council visit], the community service, and the in-class
discussions have opened my mind to a political world that I thought was so
distant.” Another said that creating a democratic classroom was a good way to learn
democracy. Yet another student who was very active in the class had this to say
in an e-mail after the class ended: “I have learned so much…The debates, skits,
and other class activities always made me want to come to class and learn
more.”
But there are also disadvantages in teaching democratically. Time
devoted to discussions among students on how to assume a greater voice in the
classroom can lead to frustration among some students and reduces time for
impartation of factual and conceptual information by the teacher on the history
and politics of American government. Lectures do cover more ground. Keeping
classroom discussions about outside assignments focused on the larger themes of
government can also be a challenge. There is also additional paperwork
involved.
There are few models on how to teach democratically and thus
little in the way of conclusive evidence on the effects. Despite whatever plans
the teacher has in mind, many of the day-to-day teaching moments are bound to
be spontaneous. Mistakes are inevitable, though mistakes by the teacher may
well help students overcome their traditional reluctance toward class
participation for fear of making mistakes themselves. The spontaneous aspects
of teaching democratically will attract some teachers and put off others who
prefer the order and content of a good lecture. But classrooms can become more
democratic while still involving lectures. On balance, teaching democracy
democratically not only makes for a livelier student experience, it makes for a
livelier teaching experience.
Endnotes
[1] This was an exchange between the author and
one of his students.
[2] None of the separate pedagogical methods
described in this article are unique; the author has simply attempted to
combine a number of them to help students break through a certain apathy
regarding government and even democracy, to not only read about democracy and
its problems, but to experience them both inside and outside of the classroom.
[3] Freire was working initially with illiterate
Brazilian rubber tapers.
[4] There are much more complicated role playing
techniques in use elsewhere but this rather bare bones method allows for
sessions short enough to fit a single class period without a lot of preparation
time. Most of my American government classes, which draw students from across
the campus as one of the core requirement options, number between 40 and 50
students, with a maximum of about 60. Most are not political science majors.
[5] When I made community
service as a substitute for their mid-term, few students took the option. Now
in classes usually ranging from 40-50, I require it. Students turn in a time
sheet signed by their supervisor with a phone number for verification, though
so far I have not felt it necessary to make such investigations.
References
Caspary, William
R. (1996). “Students in Charge.” In Becker, Theodore L. and Richard A. Couto. (Eds.). Teaching Democracy by Being Democratic.
Dewey, J.
(1933). School and Society (2nd
ed.)
Eyler, Janet and
Dwight E. Giles, Jr. (1999). Where’s the
Learning in Service-Learning?
Feynman, R.
(1985). Surely You’re Joking, Mr.
Feynman.
Freire, Paulo.
(1990). Pedagogy of the Oppressed.
Herman, Louis.
(1996). “Personal Empowerment.” In Teaching
Democracy by Being Democratic.
Becker. Theodore L. and Richard A. Couto (Eds.)
McKeachie,
Wilbert J. (9th ed.). (1994). Teaching
Tips: Strategies, Research, and Theory for College
and University Teachers.
Markus, Gregory
B. (1997). “Community Service-Learning as Practice in the Democratic Political Arts.” In Experiencing Citizenship: Concepts and Models for Service-Learning in Political Science. Richard M.
Battistoni and William E. Hudson ( Eds.).
Mattern, Mark.
(1996). “Teaching Democratic Theory…Democratically.” A paper prepared for delivery at the 1996 Annual Meeting of
the American Political Science Association, in
Rustow,
Dankwart. ([1970] 1999). “Transitions to Democracy: Toward a Dynamic Model.” In
Transitions to Democracy. Lisa Anderson (Ed.).